BMS 1110 · Common Core (Tronc commun)Section 3.6 · Dosage, weight-based and IV calculations

Section 16 of 30

Gravity drip and microdrip rates

Calculate a gravity infusion rate in drops per minute from a volume, a drop factor and a duration, and work a weight-based IV infusion from mg/kg/hr or mcg/kg/min through the concentration to mL/hr.

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Why this matters

Not every ward has an infusion pump. When a bag hangs on a pole and runs by gravity, no screen tells you the rate: you set it by counting drops in the chamber, and the only number that can be set is a whole drop per minute. A rate that is ten drops too fast is not a rounding detail — over an hour it is a different volume of drug delivered. This section gives you the one formula that converts a written order into a count you can actually watch, and shows you why the tubing in your hand changes the answer for the same order.

What you need to know first

You need three things you already have from earlier sections: multiplying whole numbers, converting hours to minutes by multiplying by 60, and reading “per” as “divided by”. If you can say out loud that 3 hours is 180 minutes, you are ready.

Words to know (6)

Gravity infusion: An infusion that flows from a bag hung above the patient, driven by gravity rather than by a pump, and therefore regulated by a roller clamp and by counting drops. 1,000 mL of saline runs from a pole at 31 gtt/min with no pump on the stand.
Drop factor: The number of drops that the giving set needs to deliver exactly 1 mL of fluid, written gtt/mL. It is a property of the tubing, not of the drug or the patient. A set with a drop factor of 20 gtt/mL needs 20 counted drops to make 1 mL, so 20 drops is 1 mL.
Macrodrip: A giving set with a large drop, usually 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL, used for ordinary large-volume infusions of saline, dextrose or similar fluids. 500 mL over 4 hours with 20 gtt/mL tubing counts 42 drops each minute.
Microdrip: A giving set whose drop factor is 60 gtt/mL, so small that 60 counted drops make 1 mL. Because 60 drops fill a millilitre and 60 minutes fill an hour, its rate equals the hourly volume. At 75 mL/hr, microdrip tubing drips 75 gtt/min, so the count and the order read the same number.
gtt/min: Drops per minute: the unit in which a gravity rate is set. “gtt” is the traditional abbreviation for a drop, from the Latin gutta, and min stands for one minute. A rate of 31 gtt/min means you watch the chamber and count 31 drops in one minute.
Weight-based infusion: An IV order written per kilogram of body weight and per unit of time, such as mg/kg/hr or mcg/kg/min, so the required amount of drug must be found before any rate can be set. 2 mg/kg/hr for a 60 kg patient means 120 mg must be delivered every hour.

One idea at a timeIdea 1 / 5

In one sentence A gravity infusion is set by counting drops per minute, because the drop chamber — not a screen — is the only place the rate exists.

Gravity infusion: the rate lives in the drip chamber

When a fluid bag hangs above a patient and a tube runs down to the vein, the fluid moves because of gravity. Nothing measures that movement. What you have instead is a drip chamber just below the bag where the fluid falls one drop at a time, and a roller clamp on the tubing that squeezes the tube to slow or speed the flow. The nurse sets the clamp, counts the drops in the chamber against a watch, and adjusts until the count is right. Because drops are discrete events you can see and count, the natural unit is drops per minute, written gtt/min. A pump counts millilitres per hour because the pump has a mechanism that measures volume; gravity has nothing but the drops, so drops per minute is the honest unit. The header on the fluid bag still tells you the total volume, and the order still tells you how long it should run, but neither of those can be dialled into a roller clamp.

For example

A 500 mL bag of saline is ordered over 4 hours by gravity. The nurse hangs it 1 metre above the arm, counts the chamber and turns the roller clamp until the counted rate matches the calculated one.

Pause and check yourself

Why is a gravity infusion measured in drops per minute rather than in millilitres per hour, when the bag is labelled in millilitres?

Show the answer

Because nothing in a gravity set measures volume. The only observable events are the drops falling in the chamber and the minutes passing on a clock, so the rate you can actually set and verify is drops per minute. Millilitres per hour is what a pump displays and what the order implies, but the roller clamp is adjusted by watching drops.

Read detailed explanations

The drop factor as the bridge between a volume and a countable event: Volume and drops are quantities of different kinds, and the drop factor is the only thing that lets you move between them. A millilitre is a continuous measure: you can have 0.4 mL, or 12.7 mL, and a syringe or an electronic pump can interpolate between them. A drop is a discrete event. The drip chamber releases one drop when the weight of the liquid hanging at the tip exceeds the surface tension holding it there, and then the process restarts; there is no half a drop, just as there is no half a heartbeat. This difference is not pedantry, it explains something you will see at the bedside: change the height of the bag and the rate changes, but the size of each drop does not, because the drop volume is fixed by the geometry of the tip — the orifice diameter and the material it is made from. The roller clamp therefore changes how many drops fall each minute, not how much a drop holds. That is also why drop factors are printed on the packaging and legally controlled: the same order given through tubing of a different manufacture would otherwise deliver a different volume. The typical macrodrip values, 10, 15 and 20 gtt/mL, correspond to three orifice sizes, and a set is called “15 drop” in the same way a needle is called “21 gauge” — the number is a design specification, not a measurement of the patient. Clinically, the bridge matters because it is where the wrong number usually enters. A nurse who substitutes 15 for 20 is not making a small slip: every minute the patient receives a different volume, and because infusions run for hours, the error accumulates rather than evaporating. Two questions follow from the bridge picture and are worth asking every time. What unit am I holding — volume or count? And which way does the drop factor multiply or divide? A count per millilitre multiplies a volume to give drops; a volume per count would do the reverse. Since the printed value is always gtt/mL, you multiply. The result is expressed in gtt/min because time has entered underneath. Anyone who can say which of the two quantities they hold and which direction the bridge runs can reconstruct the formula instead of recalling it.
Why the microdrip shortcut is a consequence of 60, and when it fails: The equality at the heart of microdrip tubing is worth deriving once, because a derived equality survives pressure while a memorised one does not. Start with the general rule and substitute: gtt/min = (mL/hr × drop factor) ÷ 60, because the hourly volume must be divided by 60 to give drops per minute. When the drop factor is 60 gtt/mL, the numerator contains 60 twice and the denominator contains 60 once, so one 60 remains on top and the expression collapses to gtt/min = mL/hr. Read the cancellation in units rather than in numbers: converting the rate to mL/min first gives (mL/hr ÷ 60 min/hr) × gtt/mL, and mL cancels to leave gtt/min, and only the numerical coincidence of a drop factor and an hour both being 60 turns the general proportionality into an identity. This is why the shortcut is called a consequence: it is not a second rule about drips, it is the general rule evaluated at one particular drop factor. Knowing that makes its limits obvious. The identity fails whenever the drop factor is not 60, and it also fails if the order itself changes unit — an order written in mL per 12 hours, or per shift, must be reduced to an hourly volume before the equality applies. The obvious nursing use is speed in an emergency, where a 60 gtt/mL set lets you set 100 mL/hr by counting 100 drops. The less obvious use is a safety argument. Because a microdrip set makes the counted number and the ordered number identical, the nurse can compare the two at a glance without arithmetic, which is why microdrip sets are preferred for paediatric and titrated infusions where small volumes are given slowly and a mistake in the drop factor would be proportionally large. The shortcut also has a cost. A microdrip rate of 100 gtt/min is a fast, dense stream that is genuinely harder to count accurately than 25 gtt/min of macrodrip, so a nurse who needs a very precise small volume may still prefer a pump. And the equality tempts people into believing that microdrip tubing somehow converts the order, when in truth the same volume leaves the bag either way: microdrip changes the counting, not the dose. That last sentence is the one to carry, because it separates a real convenience from a false sense of safety.
The weight-based infusion routine: units, concentration and pump-titration: Weight-based infusions are the orders beginners most often abandon, and the reason is nearly always that they try to reach a rate in one leap. The routine that works is a chain of four conversions, each ending in a unit you can name. Step one, dose per kilogram per hour multiplied by weight in kilograms gives an amount per hour; the kilogram cancels and the result is mass per time, such as 120 mg/hr. Step two, if the order is written per minute — mcg/kg/min is the common clinical form for vasoactive drugs — multiply the amount per minute by 60 to reach an hourly amount, because a pump is set in millilitres per hour and the hour is the pump’s natural unit. Step three, divide the amount of drug in the prepared bag by the bag volume to get a concentration, the mass carried by each millilitre. Step four, divide the hourly mass by that concentration: mass per hour divided by mass per millilitre leaves millilitres per hour, which is the pump rate. Three clinical facts give this chain its point. First, the patient’s weight is a real measurement, so an inaccurate weight produces an inaccurate dose in direct proportion: a patient recorded as 60 kg who actually weighs 66 kg receives about nine per cent less drug per kilogram than intended. Second, the concentration belongs to the pharmacy’s preparation, not to the order; if the bag is replaced mid-infusion with a stronger preparation, the pump rate must be recalculated, because the same mL/hr would now deliver more drug. Third, the unit chain is your proof: if the final unit is not mL/hr, one of the divisions is upside down. Against these facts stands the nursing reality of titration. Many weight-based drugs are titrated — the rate is adjusted up or down against a measured effect such as blood pressure, pain score or heart rhythm — so the calculated mL/hr is a starting point rather than a fixed prescription, and it must be recomputed from the current weight and the current bag rather than carried forward from the previous shift. Two errors recur and are easy to intercept. Some learners skip the concentration step and answer in mg/hr, which is an amount masquerading as a rate and cannot be set on any pump. Others multiply where they should divide, arriving at an implausibly large volume per hour; the unit check catches this immediately, because mg/hr multiplied by mg/mL produces mg²/mL, a unit with no physical meaning. Where microdrip tubing is used for such an infusion rather than a pump, the chain simply continues with one more step: the mL/hr result is put through the drip formula with a drop factor of 60, so the counted drops equal the hourly volume.

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Gravity drip and microdrip rates: drop factor, formula and weight-based infusion

A gravity giving set with its bag, drip chamber and roller clamp, followed by three teaching panels. The first panel writes the drip-rate formula with its units and works 1,000 mL over 8 hours at 15 gtt/mL to 31.25, about 31 gtt/min. The second compares the same 60 mL/hr through 20 gtt/mL macrodrip tubing (20 gtt/min) and through 60 gtt/mL microdrip tubing (60 gtt/min), showing where the “gtt/min equals mL/hr” shortcut comes from. The third follows a weight-based order for a 60 kg patient from 2 mg/kg/hr through the concentration, 240 mg in 120 mL, to 60 mL/hr.

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01 / 5The gravity set and the roller clamp

If the drawing is wider than this panel, scroll it sideways. Labels stay readable; the numbered explanations below show the same ideas.

The gravity set and the roller clamp

Fluid falls from the bag into the drip chamber, where it breaks into countable drops, and then travels down the tube past a roller clamp that squeezes the tubing to set the flow. Nothing in this set measures volume: the drops and a watch are the only evidence of the rate, which is why a gravity rate is set in drops per minute. Raising the bag speeds the flow because it increases pressure, but it does not change the size of each drop.

Schematic gravity set and worked figures, not to scale. The 10, 15, 20 and 60 gtt/mL values are the usual drop factors; the factor printed on the giving set in use is the one that governs the calculation, and rounding to a whole drop follows local policy.

Key points to remember

A gravity infusion is set in drops per minute, because the drip chamber and a watch are the only things that measure the flow.
The drop factor is the number of drops a given set needs for 1 mL, printed on the wrapper: often 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL for macrodrip, and 60 gtt/mL for microdrip.
gtt/min = (volume in mL × drop factor in gtt/mL) ÷ time in minutes; convert hours to minutes by multiplying by 60 before dividing.
At 60 gtt/mL the drop count equals the hourly volume in mL/hr, because 60 drops make a millilitre and 60 minutes make an hour.
Round a drip rate to a whole drop, and for weight-based orders go weight → amount per hour → concentration → mL/hr before setting any rate.

Go deeper

Worked example

A gravity drip rate from an order in hours. A ward has no free infusion pump. The order reads 1,000 mL of sodium chloride 0.9% over 8 hours, and the giving set on the shelf is printed 15 gtt/mL. The nurse must find the drip rate to count in the chamber.

Write the formula with its units: gtt/min = (volume in mL × drop factor in gtt/mL) ÷ time in minutes. Name the two quantities you have, 1,000 mL and 15 gtt/mL, and the one you must convert, the 8 hours.
Convert the time to minutes, because the answer must be “per minute”: 8 × 60 = 480 minutes. Nothing else changes.
Turn the volume into drops: 1,000 × 15 = 15,000 drops. The mL of the volume cancel the mL of the drop factor, leaving drops on top.
Spread those drops over the minutes: 15,000 ÷ 480 = 31.25 gtt/min. The unit is drops ÷ minutes, which is why the answer is written gtt/min.
Round to a whole drop and check the order of magnitude: 31.25 rounds to 31 gtt/min. One thousand millilitres in eight hours is about 125 mL/hr, which is about 2 mL per minute, and 2 mL × 15 drops/mL is about 30 drops per minute, so a count near 30 is sensible rather than a count near 300.

The order becomes administrable in four moves: name the quantities, convert hours to minutes, volume × drop factor, divide by minutes, then round. The same four moves work for every gravity order, whatever the drop factor printed on the set.

Tutorial 1 — a macrodrip rate over an eight-hour shift

The order reads: 1,000 mL of sodium chloride 0.9% over 8 hours by gravity. The only giving set available is a macrodrip set marked 20 gtt/mL. Work out the drip rate to count in the chamber, and decide what number you will actually set on the roller clamp.

Rule used: gtt/min = (volume in mL × drop factor in gtt/mL) ÷ time in minutes. The volume must be in millilitres, the drop factor in drops per millilitre, and the time in minutes — never in hours.

Write down the three quantities the order gives you, each with its unit, and name the one that is not yet in the right unit.
Reveal this step
Volume = 1,000 mL; drop factor = 20 gtt/mL; time = 8 hours. The time is the quantity in the wrong unit, because the formula divides by minutes and 8 is a number of hours.
Before doing any arithmetic, which tubing gives the larger drop count for the same 1,000 mL and the same 8 hours: this 20 gtt/mL set, or a 15 gtt/mL set? Give your reason without calculating either rate.
Reveal the answer
The 20 gtt/mL set gives the larger count. Its drops are smaller, so it needs twenty of them to make 1 mL where the other set needs fifteen. Volume × drop factor is a pure count, so the larger factor always gives the larger number of drops, and because the time is unchanged, also the larger count per minute.
Convert the 8 hours into minutes. Show the multiplication and keep the unit.
Reveal this step
8 hours × 60 minutes per hour = 480 minutes. The unit “hours” is gone and the time is now in the unit the formula needs.
Turn the volume into a number of drops using the drop factor, then divide by 480 minutes.
Reveal this step
1,000 mL × 20 gtt/mL = 20,000 drops, since each millilitre needs twenty drops. Then 20,000 ÷ 480 = 41.67 gtt/min. The mL cancelled, leaving drops, and dividing by minutes produced drops per minute.
The calculation gives 41.67 gtt/min. Can you set 41.67 drops a minute on a gravity set, and what do you do with the fraction?
Reveal the answer
No. A drop is a whole event: the chamber releases one drop or none, so a fraction of a drop cannot be counted or held. You round to the nearest whole drop, giving 42 gtt/min, and you keep the same rounding rule for every gravity rate on the ward so that repeated rounding never drifts far from the ordered volume.
Compare your count with the volume per hour, as a sense check. Work out the mL/hr first, then judge whether 42 gtt/min is plausible for this set.
Reveal this step
1,000 mL ÷ 8 hours = 125 mL/hr. Through 20 gtt/mL tubing, 125 mL/hr is 125 × 20 = 2,500 drops per hour, and 2,500 ÷ 60 = 41.67 gtt/min — the same figure by a second route. A count near 42 for a rate of 125 mL/hr is coherent; a count near 12 or near 420 would signal a units error.

Answer: The drip rate is 41.67 gtt/min, which rounds to 42 gtt/min — the number to set on the roller clamp.

Keep this habit: Name the three quantities first, then convert the hours to minutes before you divide, because the formula can only produce a rate per minute from a time in minutes. Finish by rounding to a whole drop and cross-checking the count against the mL/hr, which is the check that catches an inverted drop factor.

Tutorial 2 — a weight-based infusion from mg/kg/hr to mL/hr

A 60 kg patient is prescribed a drug at 2 mg/kg/hr by continuous intravenous infusion. The pharmacy has prepared a bag containing 240 mg of the drug in 120 mL of solution. Work the order all the way from the prescribed dose to the pump rate in mL/hr, then say what the equivalent gravity rate would be through 60 gtt/mL tubing.

Rule used: Route for a weight-based infusion: dose per kg per hour × weight in kg = amount per hour; amount in the bag ÷ volume of the bag = concentration in mg/mL; then amount per hour ÷ concentration = volume per hour in mL/hr.

The order names a dose per kilogram, but the patient has one particular weight. Which of the two must you multiply, and what is the answer in mg/kg/hr terms?
Reveal the answer
Multiply the prescribed 2 mg/kg/hr by the patient’s 60 kg. The kilograms cancel, leaving 2 × 60 = 120 mg/hr: the amount this patient must receive each hour. The unit mg/kg/hr becomes mg/hr, which is an amount, still not a rate.
Work out the concentration of the prepared bag as an amount per millilitre.
Reveal this step
Concentration = 240 mg ÷ 120 mL = 2 mg/mL. Read as words: each millilitre of the bag carries 2 mg of the drug, so every millilitre delivered gives the patient 2 mg.
A colleague reaches for the formula gtt/min and starts converting hours to minutes at this point. Explain why that is the wrong formula for this order, and what the right next move is.
Reveal the answer
The drip-rate formula needs a volume already in millilitres, and this order contains no volume yet: it contains an amount of drug per hour. Minutes would not help, because the missing quantity is the volume that carries 120 mg. The correct next move is to divide the hourly amount by the concentration to find that volume.
Divide the hourly amount by the concentration to obtain the volume per hour, and check that the units cancel as they should.
Reveal this step
120 mg/hr ÷ 2 mg/mL = 60 mL/hr. The mg cancel against mg, leaving mL/hr — the unit the pump expects. Think of it as 120 mg needed each hour and 2 mg carried by each millilitre, so the number of millilitres needed is 120 ÷ 2 = 60.
Using 60 gtt/mL tubing, convert the 60 mL/hr into a gravity count and state what the count tells you about microdrip sets.
Reveal this step
(60 × 60) ÷ 60 = 60 gtt/min. The drop factor of 60 and the 60 minutes of the hour cancel, so the count equals the hourly volume. That is the microdrip shortcut, and it is a consequence of the drop factor being 60 rather than a separate rule to memorise.

Answer: The pump rate is 60 mL/hr, which is 60 gtt/min through a microdrip set and 20 gtt/min through a macrodrip set of 20 gtt/mL.

Keep this habit: A weight-based order always travels the same road: weight → amount per hour → concentration → volume per hour. Never set a rate before the volume exists, and always let the units prove the last division, because mg/hr ÷ mg/mL can only give mL/hr.

Now you try

Attempt each one on paper first. Write the formula, substitute the numbers, then check the unit of your answer.

An order reads 500 mL over 4 hours by gravity using a set marked 20 gtt/mL. Calculate the drip rate in gtt/min, showing the converted time, and state the number you would set.
Hint
Convert the hours to minutes first, then multiply the volume by the drop factor, and only then divide.
Show the worked answer
4 hours × 60 = 240 minutes. 500 mL × 20 gtt/mL = 10,000 drops. 10,000 ÷ 240 = 41.67 gtt/min, which rounds to 42 gtt/min. The answer is sensible: 500 mL in 4 hours is 125 mL/hr, and 125 mL × 20 drops is 2,500 drops per hour, or about 42 drops a minute.
An IV is ordered at 80 mL/hr. Give the gravity count through 60 gtt/mL microdrip tubing and through 20 gtt/mL macrodrip tubing, and explain why the two counts differ.
Hint
One of the two sets needs no arithmetic at all, because 60 drops make a millilitre and 60 minutes make an hour. For the other, convert the hour to minutes.
Show the worked answer
With 60 gtt/mL the count is 80 gtt/min, equal to the hourly volume because (80 × 60) ÷ 60 = 80. With 20 gtt/mL the count is (80 × 20) ÷ 60 = 1,600 ÷ 60 = 26.67, about 27 gtt/min. The counts differ because the drop size differs: a microdrip drop is three times smaller than a macrodrip drop at 20 gtt/mL, so three times as many drops are needed for the same volume.
A 750 mL bag is ordered over 5 hours. Give the drip rate with 15 gtt/mL tubing and with 10 gtt/mL tubing, and state which set makes the nurse count fewer drops.
Hint
The time is the same for both sets, so the only thing that changes between the two calculations is the drop factor in the numerator.
Show the worked answer
5 × 60 = 300 minutes. With 15 gtt/mL: (750 × 15) ÷ 300 = 11,250 ÷ 300 = 37.5, rounding to 38 gtt/min. With 10 gtt/mL: (750 × 10) ÷ 300 = 7,500 ÷ 300 = 25 gtt/min. The 10 gtt/mL set makes the nurse count fewer drops, because its drops are larger so ten of them already make 1 mL. Both figures describe the same 150 mL/hr.
A 70 kg patient is prescribed 5 mcg/kg/min of a drug. The prepared bag contains 250 mg in 250 mL. Work from the ordered dose to the pump rate in mL/hr, and give the equivalent microdrip count.
Hint
Multiply the dose by the weight to get mcg/min, then by 60 to get mcg/hr. Convert micrograms to milligrams before dividing by the concentration, or the units will not cancel.
Show the worked answer
5 mcg/kg/min × 70 kg = 350 mcg/min, and 350 × 60 = 21,000 mcg/hr. Since 1,000 mcg = 1 mg, that is 21 mg/hr. The concentration is 250 mg ÷ 250 mL = 1 mg/mL, so the rate is 21 mg/hr ÷ 1 mg/mL = 21 mL/hr. With 60 gtt/mL tubing the count is (21 × 60) ÷ 60 = 21 gtt/min, equal to the hourly volume as microdrip always is.

Common misconception

Beginners often treat the drop factor as a fixed universal number and assume that 1 mL always equals 15 drops, or they remember only the microdrip shortcut and apply it to every set. Both habits produce a wrong rate without any arithmetic error. A drop is a physical size determined by the opening of the giving set: 60 drops make 1 mL in a microdrip set, but only 10, 15 or 20 in a macrodrip set. The shortcut “gtt/min equals mL/hr” is true only at 60 gtt/mL. Read the wrapper every time you open a new set, because the same order through 20 gtt/mL tubing needs a quite different count.

Check your reasoning

Explain why the drip-rate formula has never contained a “60” in general, yet a 60 appears inside the microdrip shortcut. What does that tell you about the difference between a rule and a consequence?

Reveal an answer

The general formula is gtt/min = (volume × drop factor) ÷ time in minutes, and it holds for every giving set; the only 60 in a gravity calculation is the conversion of an hour into 60 minutes. In the microdrip case the drop factor itself is 60 gtt/mL, and that 60 cancels the 60 minutes of the hour, leaving the count numerically equal to the hourly volume. Nothing new was added to the rule; a special value of the drop factor made two existing sixties disappear. A consequence like this is safe only if you know which condition produced it, because it stops being true the moment you pick up a set with a different drop factor, whereas the formula itself survives every set.

Where this comes from

BMS 1110 Applied Mathematics and Medical Biostatistics lecture notes (supplied) · Chapter Five “IV drip and infusion calculations”, lines 448–461: gravity drips in drops per minute; gtt/min = (volume × drop factor) ÷ time in minutes; the worked examples of 1,000 mL over 8 hours at 15 gtt/mL (31.25, approximately 31 gtt/min) and 500 mL over 4 hours at 20 gtt/mL (41.67, approximately 42 gtt/min); microdrip at 60 gtt/mL and the approximate equality of gtt/min with mL/hr; and the weight-based worked example of 60 kg at 2 mg/kg/hr with a solution of 240 mg in 120 mL giving 60 mL/hr.
Beyond the supplied notes: the drop factors of the common giving sets · The notes give the 15 gtt/mL and 20 gtt/mL examples and the microdrip value of 60 gtt/mL but never list the common macrodrip factors as a set, nor state that the drop factor is printed on the giving-set packaging and belongs to the tubing rather than the drug. The typical macrodrip factors 10, 15 and 20 gtt/mL and the reason for their differences (orifice size) are standard infusion practice supplied here from general nursing knowledge.
Beyond the supplied notes: the full weight-based infusion routine · Lines 459–461 give one mg/kg/hr example but do not set out the routine: the concentration step as a named stage, the extension to mcg/kg/min with the 60-minute conversion and the microgram-to-milligram step, the dependence of the rate on the prepared bag, or the clinical practice of titration. These are standard parenteral-nursing practice added from general knowledge.

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About this course and its sources

Bilingual lessons organised from the supplied BMS 1110 Applied Mathematics and Medical Biostatistics lecture notes (Mr. Ebangan Prosper Achuanoh). Diagrams are original educational schematics; sections that go beyond the supplied notes say so in their sources. Mathematics, clinical and French-language review are pending.